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Taranis

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For other uses, see Taranis (disambiguation).

Taranis (sometimes Taranus or Tanarus) is a Celtic thunder god attested in literary and epigraphic sources.

The Roman poet Lucan's epic Pharsalia mentions Taranis, Esus, and Teutates as gods to whom the Gauls sacrificed humans. This rare mention of Celtic gods under their native names in a Latin text has been the subject of much comment. Almost as often commented on are the scholia to Lucan's poem (early medieval, but relying on earlier sources) which tell us the nature of these sacrifices: in particular, that victims of Taranis were burned in a hollow wooden container. This sacrifice has been compared with the wicker man described by Caesar.

These scholia also tell us that Taranis was perhaps either equated by the Romans with Dis Pater, Roman god of the underworld, or Jupiter, Roman god of weather. Scholars have preferred the latter equation to the former, as Taranis is also equated with Jupiter in inscriptions, but both have been compared with Caesar's enigmatic references to a Gaulish pantheon.

The equation of Teutates with Jupiter has caused some scholars to identify Tarannis with the wheel god of the Celts. This god, known only from iconographic sources, is depicted with a spoked wheel and the attributes of Jupiter (including a thunderbolt). No direct evidence links Taranis with the wheel god, so some scholars have expressed scepticism about this identification.

Inscriptions dating from the 4th century BCE to the 3rd century CE attest to Taranis's worship. Scholars have drawn contradictory conclusions about the importance of Taranis from the distribution of these inscriptions.

Name

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Etymology and development

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Taranis's name derives from proto-Celtic *torano- ("thunder"), which in turn derives from proto-Indo-European *(s)tenh₂- ("to thunder"). Through the proto-Celtic root, the theonym is cognate with words for thunder in Old Irish (torann), Old Breton (taran), Middle Welsh (taran), and (as a loan word into a non-Celtic language) the Gascon dialect of French (taram).[1]: 384 

During the development of Celtic, the word for thunder seem to have undergone a metathesis (transposition of syllables) from *tonaro- to *torano-.[1]: 384  The question of whether the Chester altar (discussed below) attests to an unmetathesised form of the god's name, Tanaris, was for a long time controversial. However, the discovery of a dedication to Iovi Tanaro ("Jupiter Tanaris") in Dalmatia confirms that such a form did exist.[2]

Thunder god

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The association with thunder suggested by the etymology of Taranis's name is confirmed by his equation, in inscriptions, with Jupiter.[3]: 33  Taranis's name corresponds etymologically to that of the Germanic god Donar (i.e., Thor).[3]: 33  Peter Jackson has conjectured that the theonyms Taranis and Donar (as well as perhaps the epithet Tonans of Jupiter) originated as a result of the "fossilization of an original epithet or epiklesis" of the proto-Indo-European thunder god *Perkʷūnos.[4]: 77  Calvert Watkins compared Taranis's name with the name of the Hittite weather god Tarḫunna. However, John T. Koch pointed out that an etymology linking the two theonyms would reverse the order of the metathesis (so that Taranis precedes Tanaris) and therefore compromise the proto-Indo-European etymology.[5]: 143 

Lucan and the scholia

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Lucan

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Lucan's Pharsalia or De Bello Civili (On the Civil War) is an epic poem, begun about 61 CE, on the events of Caesar's civil war (49–48 BCE). The passage relevant to Taranis occurs in "Gallic excursus", an epic catalogue detailing the rejoicing of the various Gaulish peoples after Caesar removed his legions from Gaul (where they were intended to control the natives) to Italy. The passage thus brings out two themes of Lucan's work, the barbarity of the Gauls and the unpatriotism of Caesar.[6]: 296 

The substance of the last few lines is this: unspecified Gauls, who made human sacrifices to their gods Teutates, Esus, and Taranis, were overjoyed by the exit of Caesar's troops from their territory.[6]: 298–299  The reference to "Diana of the Scythians" refers to the human sacrifices demanded by Diana at her temple in Scythian Taurica, well known in antiquity.[9]: 66–67  That Lucan says little about these gods is not surprising. Lucan's aims were poetic, and not historical or ethnographic. The poet never travelled to Gaul and relied on secondary sources for his knowledge of Gaulish religion. When he neglects to add more, this may well reflect the limits of his knowledge.[6]: 296 [10]: 40 

We have no literary sources prior to Lucan which mention these deities, and the few which mention them after Lucan (in the case of Taranis, Papias alone[a]) rely on this passage.[6]: 299  The secondary sources on Celtic religion which Lucan relied on in this passage (perhaps Posidonius) have not come down to us.[6]: 297  This passage is one of the very few in classical literature in which Celtic gods are mentioned under their native names,[b] rather than identified with Greek or Roman gods. This departure from classical practice likely had poetic intent: emphasising the barbarity and exoticness the Gauls, whom Caesar had left to their own devices.[6]: 298 

Some scholars, such as de Vries, have argued that the three gods mentioned together here (Esus, Teutates, and Taranis) formed a divine triad in ancient Gaulish religion. However, there is little other evidence associating these gods with each other. Other scholars, such as Graham Webster, emphasise that Lucan may as well have chosen these deity-names for their scansion and harsh sound.[6]: 299 

Scholia

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Lucan's Pharsalia was a very popular school text in late antiquity and the medieval period. This created a demand for commentaries and scholia dealing with difficulties in the work, both in grammar and subject matter.[6]: 312  The earliest Lucan scholia that have come down to us are the Commenta Bernensia and the Adnotationes super Lucanum, both from manuscripts datable to the 10th and 11th centuries.[13]: 453  Also important are comments from a Cologne codex (the Glossen ad Lucan), dating to the 11th and 12th centuries.[6]: 312  In spite of their late date, these scholia are thought to incorporate very ancient material, some of it now lost. The Commenta and Adnotationes are known to contain material at least as old as Servius the Grammarian (4th century CE).[13]: 453–454  Below are excerpts from these scholia relevant to Taranis:

Commentary Latin English
Commenta Bernensia ad Lucan, 1.445 Taranis Ditis pater hoc modo aput eos placatur: in alveo ligneo aliquod homines cremantur. Taranis Dispater is appeased in this way by them: several people are burned in a wooden tub.[14]
Commenta Bernensia ad Lucan, 1.445 item aliter exinde in aliis invenimus. [...] praesidem bellorum et caelestium deorum maximum Taranin Iovem adsuetum olim humanis placari capitibus, nunc vero gaudere pecorum. We also find it [depicted] differently by other [authors]. [...] the leader of wars and chief of the heavenly gods, Taranis, [they consider] to be Jupiter, who was once accustomed to be appeased with human heads, but now [is accustomed] to delight in those of animals.[14]
Adnotationes super Lucanum, 1.445. Taranis Iuppiter dictus a Gallis, qui sanguine litatur humano. Taranis is called Jupiter by the Gauls, to whom sacrifices are made with human blood.[15]
Glossen ad Lucan, 1.445 Tharanis Iuppiter. hi omnes in Teutonicis partibus colebantur a Taranu. ut feria teutonice dicitur. Tharanis Jupiter. All of these were worshipped in the Teutonic regions at Taranus (?), as a day of the week is called in Teutonic.[16]

The first excerpt, about the sacrifice to Taranis, comes from a passage in the Commenta which details the human sacrifices offered each of to the three gods (persons were suspended from trees and dismembered for Esus, persons were drowned in a barrel for Teutates). This passage, which is not paralleled anywhere else in classical literature, has been much the subject of much commentary. It seems to have been preserved in the Commenta by virtue of its author's preference for factual (over grammatical) explanation.[6]: 318  The Adnotationes, by comparison, tell us nothing about the sacrifices to Esus, Teutates, and Taranis beyond that they were each murderous.[6]: 332 

An imaginative 18th-century illustration of the wicker man

The Commenta tells us that as sacrifices to Taranis, several people were burned in a wooden alveus. The word alveus is translated above as "tub", but it could applied to any hollow container. In various settings, the term could be used to mean a ship's hull, a bath tub, a drainage basin, a canoe, or a beehive.[6]: 324  Miranda Green linked this sacrifice with the wicker man, the well-known wicker figure in which (according to Caesar and Strabo) humans were burned as sacrifices.[17]: 100 

The interpretatio romana of Taranis as Jupiter, which only the Commenta gives,[c] is otherwise attested in epigraphy, and agrees with our understanding of Taranis as a thunder god. By contrast, the interpretatio of Taranis as Dis Pater, given in all three commentaries, is quite obscure. It is not given in any inscription, and we do not know what Taranis had to do with the underworld.[d][6]: 324 

In the course of giving the interpretatio of Taranis as Jupiter, the scholiast of the Commenta mentions that Taranis was "leader of wars". This is an unusual trait to associate with Jupiter rather than Mars (Roman god of war), though the Romans occasionally gave Jupiter martial functions. Hofeneder has associated the comment that Taranis was "appeased with human heads" with this martial function, as the (pre-Roman) Celtic custom of carrying off their foes' heads in battle is well-attested.[6]: 324–325  The scholiast describes a transition from human to animal sacrifice, probably connected to the suppression of human sacrifice in Gaul in the Imperial period.[19]: 5 

Caesar states in his Commentaries on the Gallic War that the Gauls regarded a Gaulish god (whom Caesar equated with Dis Pater) as their ancestor.[20]: 24  As Taranis is the only Celtic god equated with Dis Pater in ancient literary sources, Taranis has often been a cited as a candidate for Gaulish Dis Pater.[6]: 201  On the other hand, Caesar also briefly refers to an unnamed Gaulish god who "rules over all the gods" (imperium caelestium tenere), and whom he equates with Jupiter. It has been suggested that Taranis is behind this description.[21]: 208  The similarity between Caesar's description of Gaulish Jupiter, and the Commenta's description of Taranis as "chief of the heavenly gods" (caelestium deorum maximum), has been noted, though this may reflect reliance on Caesar's text or a routine characterisation of the Roman god Jupiter.[20]: 25 

Taranis and the wheel god

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The wheel god (Radgott) is a figure of Celtic religious iconography, a god wielding a spoked wheel. The wheel god is often depicted with the attributes of Jupiter: thunderbolt, sceptre, and eagle. The spoked wheel was an important religious motif for the Celts. Several votive deposits of metal wheels have been found.[22]: 68, 73  The Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae lists 14 depictions of the wheel god. Some are statuettes of the god dressed in Gaulish garb, with a wheel in one hand and a thunderbolt in the other. A mosaic from Saint-Romain-en-Gal shows a woman and a man leaving sacrifices to such a statuette. An obscure scene on the Gundestrup cauldron perhaps shows a leaping devotee offering a wheel to the wheel god. The so-called Jupiter columns, religious monuments widespread in Germania, are frequently crowned with an equestrian god, who sometimes wields a wheel.[23]: 844 

Because both were identified with Jupiter, Taranis has been repeatedly equated with the wheel god (for example, by Pierre Lambrechts, Jean-Jacques Hatt [fr], and Anne Ross).[10]: 41  However, nothing connects the gods directly. No inscription links Taranis with wheel iconography.[18]: 81  Some scholars have rejected this equation. Green rejected the identification, and argued that the wheel god was a solar deity; therefore naturally identifiable with Jupiter, but separate from the thunder god Taranis.[10]: 41  Gerhard Bauchhenß [de] and Peter Noelke [de] both express scepticism in their studies of Jupiter columns in Germany.[18]: 81, 399  Árpád M. Nagy described the equation as "probable, but not binding".[23]: 844 

In any case, the combination of the thunderbolt and wheel as attributes is not unique to one deity: Hercules is occasionally depicted with these attributes in the Latin West, and a female deity with a thunderbolt and wheel is known from a statue in Autun.[23]: 845 [24]: 60 

Epigraphy

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Text Context Date Language Citation Comments
ṣ a[ / kakaka[(?) / θarani[? / saφ̣ạṇa / θ̣]arani[?} Inscribed on an object (perhaps a keyhandle) made from staghorn. Found in Sottopedonda, in the Fiemme Valley, Italy.[6]: 325  4th century to 3rd century BCE[6]: 325  Rhaetic TIR FI-1 The god Taranis (in the form Tarani) is invoked twice in this obscure (perhaps magico-religious) Raetic inscription. Simona Marchesini has argued that the absence of the Celtic final -s suggests "the god's name was well integrated in the Raetic world".[25]: 177 
ΟΥΗΒΡΟΥΜΑΡΟΣ / ΔΕΔΕ ΤΑΡΑΝΟΟΥ / ΒΡΑΤΟΥΔΕΚΑΝΤΕΜ (translit. ouibroumaros / dede taranoou / bratoudekantem) Inscribed on a small cippus. Found in Orgon, Bouches-du-Rhône, France.[26] 2nd or 1st century BCE[26] Gaulish RIG I G-27 Lejeune offers the translation "Vebrumaros offered Taranus in gratitude (?) the tithe (?)".[26]
E[ ]IMO / ESOET IVTRABAVTIO / RVTI DVO ESANA / TARAIN[I] PANOV / DIR FONT MEM / MIDR.MARMAR / EVI IABO . VIII . MV / MVLCOI CARBRVX[e] Inscribed on a gold lamella. Found in Baudecet, Gembloux, Belgium.[28] 2nd century CE[29]: 822  Latin (perhaps with Gaulish and Germanic elements) RIG II.2 L-109 This difficult magico-religious inscription from Belgian Gaul may be an Orphic gold tablet. In arguing that the inscription has Gaulish elements, Karl Horst Schmidt [de] and Patrizia de Bernardo proposed that line 4 invokes the god Taranis. However, Pierre-Yves Lambert has read it as an Orphic formula.[28]
IOVI TAN(ARO) / ]S APER[ Inscribed on an altar. Found in Bribir, Dalmatia, Croatia.[30] First half of the 1st century CE[30] Latin AE 2010, 1225
TARANUOS Inscribed on a terracotta jug. Found near Amiens, Somme, France.[31] 1st century CE[20]: 21  Latin AE 1966, 269 Another inscription found nearby (AE 1966, 268) suggests the find-spot was originally a place of religious significance.[20]: 24 
PATE]RNIANUS(?) / V(IVUS) / [ALUM]NO(?) SUO / [PI]O(?) POSUIT / [3]EMIO // ]O[3] / [3]M SA[3] / UXO[RI] / TARANU[TIUS(?)] / COMATUL[LUS(?) Found in Caesarodunum (Roman Tours), Indre-et-Loire, France[32] 1st century CE[20]: 27  Latin CIL XIII, 3083 Taranu[ is a personal name.[20]: 26 
IOVI TA/RANUCO / ARRIA SUC/CESSA V(OTUM) S(OLVIT) Found in Scardona (Roman Skradin), Dalmatia, Croatia[33] 1st to first half of the 2nd century CE[33] Latin CIL III, 2804
NUM(INI) AUG(USTI) / ET I(OVI) O(PTIMO) M(AXIMO) / TARANUEN / D(E) S(UO) P(RO) P(IETATE) P(OSUIT) Inscribed on an altar. Found in Thauron, Creuse, France.[34] 2nd century CE?[20]: 27  Latin AE 1961, 159 It is uncertain whether Taranuen is a god name or a personal name.[20]: 27 
I(OVI) O(PTIMO) M(AXIMO) TANARO / L(UCIUS) [ELUFRIUS(?)] GALER(IA) / PRAESENS [CL]UNIA / PRI(NCEPS) LEG(IONIS) XX V(ALERIAE) V(ICTRICIS) / COMMODO ET / LATERANO CO(N)S(ULIBUS) V(OTUM) S(OLVIT) L(IBENS) M(ERITO) Inscribed on an altar. Found in Chester, England.[35] 154 CE[35] Latin CIL VII, 168 = RIB 452 This votive inscription to Jupiter Tanarus, by one Lucius Elufrius Praesens from Clunia, was one of the Arundel marbles.[35] The inscription is now badly weathered and illegible, but was read and recorded in the 17th century. The unusual form of the god's name here (Tanarus) has lead to repeated suggestions of a misspelling on the part of the engraver or misreading in the original autopsy. However, the discovery of a dedication to Iovi Tanaro in Dalmatia has somewhat obviated these concerns.[6]: 326 [2]
IN H(ONOREM) D(OMUS) D(IVINAE) DEO / TARANUCNO // ET RAVINI / QUIBUS EX / COLLATA STIPEN[DIA] / IUL(IUS) IUL[3] / C(AIUS?) COPI[US(?)? EX] / IUSS[U POSU(ERUNT?)] Inscribed on an altar. Found in Godramstein, Germany.[36] Second half of the 2nd century CE[36] Latin CIL XIII, 6094
DEO / TARANUCNO / VERATIUS / PRIMUS / EX IUSSU Inscribed on an altar. Found in Böckingen, Germany.[37] Second half of the 2nd century to first half of the 3rd century CE[37] Latin CIL XIII, 6478
[...] VALE(N)S TARANIS [...] Inscribed on a tablet. Found in Nicopolis ad Istrum, Bulgaria.[38] 227 CE[38] Latin CIL III, 6150 = CIL III, 7437 = CIL III, 12346 Vale(n)s Taranis is a personal name.[20]: 26 

A few different forms of the god's name are known from epigraphy. The spelling Taranus, which is much more common than Taranis in epigraphy, is an older form than Taranis.[20]: 20  There is the above-discussed un-metathesised form Taranus. There is also Taranuc(n)us ("son/descendant of Taranus"), known from two inscriptions of Germania Superior, which attaches a patronymic suffix to Taranis's name.[6]: 325–326 

Different scholars have drawn different conclusions about Taranis's importance and the geographical extent of his worship from his epigraphic attestations. Marion Euskirchen calls the epigraphic evidence "scanty and altogether not unambiguous", which "suggests a rather limited significance of the god within a number of tribal federations".[39] Hofeneder, on the other hand, states that Taranis is "attested surprisingly often" for a Celtic god, a fact which "clearly indicates that he must have been a deity worshipped in large parts of Keltiké [de] and over a long period of time".[6]: 327 

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Papias was a Latin lexicographer of the 11th century. His dictionary has entries for Teutates and Taranis, which do no more than give interpretatios of these pagan deities (the origin of whom Papias did not even know). Papias evidently relies on the commentary tradition to Lucan.[11]: 531–532 
  2. ^ For the most part, classical sources describe Celtic gods under Greek or Roman names without further comment. Georg Wissowa emphasises that Lucan "stands almost alone" (steht nahezu allein) apart from this tradition. Epona, the Gallo-Roman horse god, is a notable exception; she appears frequently in classical literature, and never under an interpretatio. Wissowa lists (though not exhaustively) two other Celtic gods, who are mentioned under their own names: Belenus (mentioned briefly by Herodian and Tertullian) and Grannus (mentioned by Cassius Dio).[12]: 9–11 
  3. ^ The Commenta offers two sets of interpretatios of the three Celtic gods mentioned in Lucan. In the first set, Teutates is Mercury, Esus is Mars, and Taranis is Dis Pater. In the second set, Teutates is Mars, Esus is Mercury, and Taranis is Jupiter.[6]: 317 
  4. ^ Among those who identify the Celtic wheel god with Taranis, some attempt has been made to substantiate the identification of Taranis with Dis Pater. Fritz Heichelheim cited the wheel god of Séguret, who has a snake coiled behind it, as evidence of the chthonic associations of Taranis. Pierre Lambrechts took the Jupiter columns as showing Taranis's dominion over both the underworld and the overworld.[18]: 80 
  5. ^ This reading follows Jürgen Untermann.[27] Other readings, by Pierre-Yves Lambert and Brigitte Galsterer [de], are given in the apparatus to RIG L-109.[28]

References

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  1. ^ a b Matasović, Ranko (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series. Vol. 9. Leiden / Boston: Brill.
  2. ^ a b "Altar to Jupiter Tanarus, Chester". The Ashmolean Latin Inscriptions Project. 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2025.
  3. ^ a b Meid, Wolfgang (2003). "Keltische Religion im Zeugnis der Sprache". Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie. 53 (1): 20–40. doi:10.1515/ZCPH.2003.20.
  4. ^ Jackson, Peter (2002). "Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage". Numen. 49 (1): 61–102. doi:10.1163/15685270252772777. JSTOR 3270472.
  5. ^ Koch, John T. (2020). Celto-Germanic, Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West. University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  7. ^ Lucan, De Bello Civilo, 1.441-446
  8. ^ Translation from Braund, Susan H. (1992). Lucan: Civil War. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  9. ^ Green, C. M. C. (January 1994). "Lucan Bellum Civile 1.444-46: A Reconsideration". Classical Philology. 89 (1): 64–69. JSTOR 269754.
  10. ^ a b c Green, Miranda J. (1982). "Tanarus, Taranis and the Chester altar". Journal of the Chester Archaeological Society. 65: 37–44. doi:10.5284/1070267.
  11. ^ Hofeneder, Andreas (2011). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 3. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  12. ^ Wissowa, Georg (1916–1919). "Interpretatio Romana: Römische Götter im Barbarenlande". Archiv für Religionswissenschaft. 19: 1–49.
  13. ^ a b Esposito, Paolo (2011). "Early and Medieval Scholia and Commentaria on Lucan". In Asso, Paolo (ed.). Brill's Companion to Lucan. Leiden / Boston: Brill. pp. 453–463. doi:10.1163/9789004217096_025.
  14. ^ a b Translation after the German in Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 317.
  15. ^ Translation after the German in Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 331.
  16. ^ Translation after the German in Hofeneder, Andreas (2008). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 2. Wien: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. p. 334.
  17. ^ Green, Miranda (1997). Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
  18. ^ a b c Bauchhenß, Gerhard; Noelke, Peter (1981). Die Iupitersäulen in den germanischen Provinzen. Köln: Rheinland.
  19. ^ Demandt, Alexander (2002). "Der Baumkult der Kelten". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 1–18.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hainzmann, Manfred (2002). "Taranis – Jupiter: Keltischer Donner und römischer Blitz". In Ternes, Charles Marie; Zinser, Hartmut (eds.). Dieux des Celtes – Götter der Kelten – Gods of the Celts. Études Luxembourgeoises d’histoire et de science des religions. Vol. 1. Luxemburg. pp. 19–38.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  21. ^ Hofeneder, Andreas (2005). Die Religion der Kelten in den antiken literarischen Zeugnissen. Vol. 1. Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
  22. ^ Green, Miranda J. (1986). "Jupiter, Taranis and the Solar Wheel". In Henig, Martin; King, Anthony (eds.). Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology. pp. 65–75.
  23. ^ a b c Nagy, Árpád M (1994). "Taranis". Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae. Vol. VII. pp. 843–845.
  24. ^ Espérandieu, Émile (1908). Recueil général des bas-reliefs, statues et bustes de la Gaule romaine. Vol. 3. Paris: Imprimerie nationale.
  25. ^ Marchesini, Simona (2012). "La ricezione di elementi culturali allogeni in ambito retico: Taranis in Val di Fiemme (TN)". Mode e modelli. Fortuna e insuccesso nella circolazione di cose e idee. Officina Etruscologia. Vol. 7. Rome. pp. 177–190.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  26. ^ a b c RIG I G-27 via Recueil informatisé des inscriptions gauloises. Accessed on 16 January 2025.
  27. ^ Untermann, Jürgen (1993). "Vorbemerkungen zur sprachlichen Deutung der Inscrift des Goldplättchen aus Baudecet". Latomas. 52 (4): 810–813. JSTOR 41536782.
  28. ^ a b c RIG II.2 L-109 in Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2002). Recueil des inscriptions gauloises. II, fasc. 2, Textes gallo-latins sur instrumentum. Paris: Éd. du CNRS. pp. 310-312.
  29. ^ Raepsaet-Charlier, Marie-Thérèse (1993). "La plaquette en or inscrite de Baudecet: quelques considérations sur sa fonction et son interprétation". Latomas. 52 (4): 819–825. JSTOR 41536782.
  30. ^ a b AE 2010, 1225
  31. ^ AE 1966, 269
  32. ^ CIL XIII, 3083
  33. ^ a b CIL III, 2804
  34. ^ AE 1961, 159
  35. ^ a b c RIB 452
  36. ^ a b CIL XIII, 6094
  37. ^ a b CIL XIII, 6478
  38. ^ a b CIL III, 6150
  39. ^ Euskirchen, Marion (2006). "Taranis". Brill's New Pauly Online. Brill. doi:10.1163/1574-9347_bnp_e1200490.

Further reading

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  • Green, Miranda J. (1984). The wheel as a cult-symbol in the Romano-Celtic world with special reference to Gaul and Britain. Collection Latomus. Vol. 183. Brussels.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Gricourt, Daniel; Hollard, Dominique (1990). "Taranis, le dieu celtique à la roue. Remarques préliminaires". Dialogues d'histoire ancienne. 16 (2): 275–320.
  • Gricourt, Daniel; Hollard, Dominique (1991). "Taranis, caelestiorum deorum maximus". Dialogues d'histoire ancienne. 17 (1): 343–400.
  • Lambrechts, Pierre (1942). "Taranis, le dieu celtique à la roue". Contributions à l'étude des divinités celtiques. Bruges: De Tempel.
  • Le Roux, Françoise (1958). "Taranis, dieu Celtique du Ciel et de l'Orage. I. Les documents épigraphiques et littéraires. L'étymologie et ses problèmes". Ogam. 10: 30–39.
  • Le Roux, Françoise (1959). "Taranis, dieu Celtique du Ciel et de l'Orage. II. Taranis – Jupiter – Donar. La roue et l'anguipède. Introduction à une étude exhaustive du Jupiter Gaulois". Ogam. 11: 307–324.
  • Linckenheld, Émile (1929). "Études de mythologie celtique en Lorraine". Annuaire de la Société d'Histoire et d'Archeologie de la Lorraine. 38: 127–128.
  • Sevilla Rodríguez, Martín (1981). "Vestigios toponímicos de culto a Taranis/Taranus en el Noroeste Peninsular". Primera reunión gallega de estudios clásicos : (Santiago-Pontevedra, 2-4 Julio 1979): ponencias y comunicaciones. Santiago de Compostela: Publicaciones de la Universidad de Santiago. pp. 101–103.
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  • Media related to Taranis at Wikimedia Commons
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